Salmon facts

Salmon belong to the Salmonidae family, which includes salmon, trout, whitefish, taimen, lenok, char, and grayling.¹ They typically swim in temperate and arctic waters in the Northern Hemisphere in large groups known as shoals, and can survive in both fresh and saline water.² Whilst they spend the most of their adult lives at sea, salmon undertake an epic migration inland to the rivers in which they were born in order to reproduce.

What makes the salmon’s migration, often called a “salmon run”, so impressive is the challenge of swimming upstream against miles of rushing river water, as well as hurtling up and over rocks, waterfalls and dodging predators.³ One of the most infamous salmon runs takes place across the Brooks River and the Naknek River in Alaska, where hungry grizzly bears wait and fish for salmon leaping from the water.⁴

1. Salmon can leap 12 feet out of water—higher than the men’s high jump record.⁵

2. Salmon are anadromous, meaning they migrate from oceans into rivers to reproduce.⁶

3. They return to the same rivers in which they were born to spawn, and can even locate the specific stretches of river they were born in.⁷

4. Salmon migrate enormous distances to reach their spawning grounds. Chinook salmon make some of the longest journeys and can cover up to 1800 miles up the Yukon River across Canada and Alaska.⁸

5. During spawning season, many male salmon develop elongated, hooked jaws called “kype” and develop vividly coloured skin to attract females.⁹

6. In the ocean, salmon typically swim close to the surface (within 10m/30ft) but can swim much deeper, to over 300m/1000ft.¹⁰

7. Alongside their incredible strength and speed, salmon can jump so high by riding the momentum of water gushing up towards the surface at the bottom of waterfalls.¹¹

8. Salmon use their eyesight to plan their jumps—they can judge distance in and out of water very well.¹²

All salmon belong to the family Salmonidae, but they are split into two genera: Pacific and Atlantic salmon. As their names suggest, Pacific salmon are predominantly found in the Pacific Ocean, whilst Atlantic salmon are found in the Atlantic Ocean. There are seven species of Pacific salmon and one species of Atlantic salmon. Atlantic and Pacific salmon cannot mate with one another because they are too genetically different.¹³

The six or seven species of Pacific salmon are Chinook, sockeye, coho, chum, pink, masu, and amago salmon—some sources classify amago salmon as a subspecies of masu salmon.¹⁴ They are part of the Oncorhynchus genus which also includes several species of trout.¹⁵ Steelhead trout, also known as rainbow trout, are sometimes included as an eighth species because they are genetically closer to Pacific salmon than to other trout species.¹⁶

There is only one species found in the Atlantic, called Atlantic salmon. They are part of the Salmo genus, which also contains 29 trout species.¹⁷

Some salmon species have multiple common names: Chinook salmon are also called “king” or “tyee” salmon—their size, relative scarcity and “vicious” appearance make them prize catches of anglers. Chinook salmon are also the longest-living species, reaching up to eight years old.¹⁸

Masu salmon are sometimes known as “masu trout” or “cherry salmon”, not because of their red-orange markings but because the peak season to fish them coincides with cherry blossom season in Japan.¹⁹

Chum salmon are often known as “dog salmon” because of the half-inch-long teeth males develop in spawning season. They too have a distinctive tiger-like stripe pattern which can transform into a deep beetroot colour.

Spawning male pink salmon grow an enormous hump running down the length of their backs, which has given them the nickname of “humpback salmon” in Russia.²⁰

Salmon are streamlined, torpedo-shaped fish with robust bodies and small fins, built for both endurance and bursts of speed.

Atlantic and Pacific salmon can be hard to differentiate, but Atlantic salmon typically have a trimmer appearance, and are mostly silver, with a pinkish-white underbelly, a darker-coloured back and a splattering of spots.²¹ The appearance of Pacific salmon varies more between different species. Male Pacific sockeye salmon have one of the most distinct appearances, with vibrant red bodies and olive-green heads and tails.²²

Salmon are sexually dimorphic, meaning they develop secondary sexual characteristics during breeding season which changes their appearance.²³ Many male Atlantic and Pacific salmon typically develop elongated, hooked jaws known as a “kype” to compete with rivals and attract mates.²⁴ Male Pacific pink salmon develop humps on their backs behind their heads which have earnt them the nickname of “humpies”. The skin of salmon can also change, becoming more leathery, spongy or slimy, whilst male Pacific coho salmon develop a deep pink flush during breeding season.²⁵

Not all male salmon will develop secondary sexual characteristics and will instead attempt to sneak past other competing males to fertilise a female’s eggs.²⁶

Salmon make their exhausting migrations back to their birth rivers because they instinctively know that water far in-land provides a safer environment than the open ocean for salmon to spawn. This gives their offspring a better chance to develop successfully with sufficient nutrients and fewer predators.²⁷ Salmon must also lay their eggs in freshwater because their offspring are not born with the ability to survive in saline water.²⁸ Whilst rivers provide safety for reproducing salmon and offspring, there is not enough food for all the salmon to eat once they mature, so they must venture out to the ocean where most salmon will live until they are ready to reproduce.²⁹

Migrating both inland to rivers and outwards to the ocean is an extremely tiring and time-consuming journey for salmon. It’s fraught with dangers, including predation, exhaustion, navigation error, and natural and man-made obstacles such as rapids, waterfalls, dams which salmon must launch themselves over to complete their journeys.³⁰

Some scientists have even speculated that the dangers faced by salmon when migrating may become greater than the reproductive benefits. High risk of mortality while migrating could lead to a loss of anadromy (the ability to survive in salty and freshwater) in some populations.³¹

It is one of nature’s amazing phenomena that salmon can find their way back to their birthplace to spawn with such accuracy—just how they manage this has been a popular topic of research among ichthyologists. A 2013 study found evidence that Pacific Sockeye salmon use an imprint of the magnetic field of their spawning grounds. They use this imprint as a navigation tool to return for spawning.³² Scientists suspect that other species use a similar strategy.

In 1992, biologist W. M. Shearer took salmon eggs from the River Conon in Scotland, raised them in water from the River Garry and released the tagged smolts (young salmon) in the River North Esk. The tagged fish that returned were all found in the North Esk where they had been released, rather than the river in which they were born. Some salmon don’t make their way back to their birthplace but many that do go up the “wrong” river can still find breeding success.³³

Young salmon begin their journey out to the ocean once they have undergone a series of physiological transformations to adapt to saline water known as “smolting”. Along with these physiological changes, scientists believe that there are other genetic cues which prompt the salmon when to depart, whilst the Earth’s magnetic field likely guides the way.³⁴

At sea, salmon are opportunistic feeders and will usually eat anything they can swallow whole. The bulk of their ocean diet includes other fish, shrimps, small crustaceans such as krill, molluscs such as squid, and zooplankton.³⁵

In their rush to reproduce, adult salmon typically eat very little whilst returning from the ocean to their native rivers and can even go six months without food.³⁶ During this period, salmon may survive off insects and their fat reserves causing their stomachs to shrink drastically.³⁷

Young salmon, or “smolts”, will eat mostly insects, very small crustaceans and larval sand eels before switching to a marine diet once they get to the ocean.³⁸

Salmon can also “filter feed”, which means they swim towards shoals of larvae or zooplankton with their mouths open, letting the water flow back out through the gills and leaving the food trapped inside its mouth.³⁹

Atlantic salmon, as per their name, live in the Atlantic Ocean and journey into rivers of both North America and Europe.⁴⁰

Of the Pacific salmon, Chinook, sockeye, chum, coho and pink salmon live in the North American Pacific, whilst the Masu and Amago species are only found in the Asian Pacific.⁴¹

All salmon are native to the Northern hemisphere, but some species now exist in the Southern hemisphere due to human introduction. Chum salmon and pink salmon are the most widely distributed pacific salmon species; they travel close to California, to the north of Siberia, and south of Japan.⁴²

Not all salmon make epic migrations. Some masu salmon populations spend their entire lives in the ocean, while others, like landlocked sockeye salmon – known as kokanee – never leave freshwater.⁴³

In general, salmon are not endangered but many species and populations are in decline due to overfishing, pollution, logging, dams, extreme weather caused by climate change, and other factors contributing to habitat degradation.⁴⁴

Man-made obstacles such as dams and water turbines pose great threats to the salmon’s journey inland, and if they are not completely blocked or killed directly by these threats, they can die from shock.⁴⁵

Among species of Pacific salmon, coho salmon are the least abundant. Some populations are classified as threatened or endangered, and Central Californian Coast coho salmon nearly went extinct in the late 1990s.⁴⁶ Many Atlantic salmon populations are also listed as endangered by the IUCN and are less abundant than their Pacific counterparts.⁴⁷

The effects of climate change and rising temperatures of the oceans have been linked to a decline in many Pacific and Atlantic salmon populations.⁴⁸ However, for some Pacific salmon, it is allowing them to expand their swimming range further into Arctic waters.⁴⁹ Another study finds that some populations of juvenile sockeye salmon have been growing larger because of climate change; the warmer water speeds up their metabolism, so they eat more food. Salmon are cold-blooded so they are very sensitive to changes in water temperature. Hatching success typically starts to decrease in water above 12°C. Once water is too warm, the eggs develop too quickly, leading to deformities and higher mortality rates.⁵⁰

Atlantic salmon typically measure between 47–59 inches (1.2–1.5m).⁵¹ Pacific salmon typically measure between 30–59 inches (0.8–1.5m) depending on the species. The largest species is the Chinook salmon, nicknamed king salmon because of its size. In Alaska, 1985, a king salmon was caught weighing an impressive 97lbs, 4 ounces (44kg) from the Kenai River—a river known for its rich abundance of salmon, trout, char and other fish, and for its multiple salmon runs.⁵²

The average Chinook, however, is usually just under a metre long and 13.6–18kg.⁵³ The smallest salmon is the pink salmon, which are usually 0.4–0.6m long and weigh significantly less at 1.4–2.3kg on average.⁵⁴ During spawning season the male salmon’s testes grow five times as heavy whilst a female’s eggs make up 15% of her body weight.⁵⁵

For most Pacific salmon, reproducing is a one-way journey. They use up all their energy to return to their birthplace, evade predators and obstacles, court a mate, and dig gravel nests for their eggs. Exhausted from the effort, they die shortly afterwards.⁵⁶ However, their deaths are not in vain—after creating the next generation, their decomposing bodies enrich the rivers with nitrogen and phosphorus, providing vital support for the surrounding ecosystem.⁵⁷

Atlantic salmon have a slightly better chance of surviving past spawning. Around 5–10% manage to make the journey back to the ocean and may attempt to spawn again the following year.⁵⁸ Repeat spawners and those that survive after spawning are known as kelts, and essential for resistance and recovery in a salmon population. Kelts can be either male and female, although female kelts seem to be more prevalent.⁵⁹ Fitness is believed to be a key characteristic of kelts, and one study has even found that Atlantic salmon with a certain genotype of the gene vgII3 are more likely to survive after spawning.⁶⁰

There are several stages in the salmon lifecycle, each with a specific name.

When they first hatch, salmon offspring are known as alevin. They are thin, translucent and are still attached to the yolk sac. They stay hidden amongst the gravel for protection against predators, which makes them incredibly difficult for humans to spot too. The yolk sac, which looks like a bright orange jellybean, is attached to the alevin’s belly and is gradually absorbed for nutrients.⁶¹

Once the yolk is fully absorbed, the young salmon—now called “fry”—must venture out of the gravel to look for food. At this stage, salmon are extremely vulnerable to predators and many populations experience a high mortality rate.⁶² Some scientists also include a stage in the lifecycle where fry develop into “parr” and begin to resemble an adult salmon—with more developed fins and vertical stripes forming down their bodies for camouflage. ⁶³

To go from living in freshwater to saline water, salmon undergo a series of physiological changes called “smolting”. These are called smolts. They develop a silvery coat for camouflage in open, ocean water, which creates the flashing effect we see in large shoals for confusing predators.⁶⁴ They also become more missile-like in shape, with a wide middle and tapering off at the head and tail.⁶⁵

Header image: © Shutterstock

Fun fact image: © Shutterstock

Quick Facts:

1: Sutterby, Rod., Greenhalgh, Malcolm. 2005. “Atlantic salmon : an illustrated natural history." United States: Stackpole Books; Coates, Peter. 2006. “Salmon.” United Kingdom: Reaktion Books.

2: “Questions and Answers about Salmon.” Western Fisheries Research Centre. USGS. Accessed 3 Aug 2025. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/western-fisheries-research-center/question…; Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers.

3: “Questions and Answers about Salmon.” Western Fisheries Research Centre. USGS. Accessed 3 Aug 2025. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/western-fisheries-research-center/question…; Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers.

4: “Questions and Answers about Salmon.” Western Fisheries Research Centre. USGS. Accessed 3 Aug 2025. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/western-fisheries-research-center/question…; Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers.

5: “Oncorhynchus.” IUCN Red List. Accessed 3 Aug 2025. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=125213&searchType=species; “Salmo salar.” IUCN Red List. Accessed 3 Aug 2025. https://www.iucnredlist.org/search?taxonomies=100191&searchType=species

Fact File:

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7: Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers. “Atlantic Salmon.” NatureScot: Scotland’s Nature Agency. Accessed 16 Sep 2024. https://www.nature.scot/plants-animals-and-fungi/fish/freshwater-fish/atlantic-salmon#:~:text=About%2090%20to%2095%25%20of,depressions%20known%20as%20'redds'.

8: Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers.

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11: Coates, Peter. 2006. “Salmon.” United Kingdom: Reaktion Books.

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19: Coates, Peter. 2006. “Salmon.” United Kingdom: Reaktion Books.

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23: Coates, Peter. 2006. “Salmon.” United Kingdom: Reaktion Books.

24: Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers. “Evolution Illuminated: Salmon and Their Relatives.” 2004. Eds. Hendry, Andrew P, and Stearns, Stephen C. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. “Atlantic Salmon.” The Wildlife Trusts. Accessed 16 Sep 2024. https://www.wildlifetrusts.org/wildlife-explorer/freshwater-fish/atlantic-salmon.

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26: “Evolution Illuminated: Salmon and Their Relatives.” 2004. Eds. Hendry, Andrew P, and Stearns, Stephen C. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

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29: Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers.

30: Ammar, Imen Ben et al. 2020. “Passage through a hydropower plant affects the physiological and health status of Atlantic salmon smolts.” Comparative Biology and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2020.110745

31: Adams, Colin E et al. 2022 “An opinion piece: the evolutionary and ecological consequences of changing selection pressures on marine migration in Atlantic salmon.” Journal of Fish Biology, 100(4). 10.1111/jfb.15024

32: Putman, Nathan F et al. 2013. “Evidence for Geomagnetic Imprinting as a Homing Mechanism in Pacific Salmon.” Current Biology, 23(4). https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(13)00003-1?_re…

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36: “Salmon Facts.” Pacific Salmon Foundation. Accessed 16 Sep 2024. https://psf.ca/learn/salmon-facts/.

37: Coates, Peter. 2006. “Salmon.” United Kingdom: Reaktion Books. Johansen, M. 2005. “Evidence of freshwater feeding by adult salmon in the Tana River, northern Norway.” Journal odf Fish Biology, 59(5), pp. 1405-1407. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb00201.x

38: Rae, Rowena. 2022. “Salmon: Swimming for Survival.” United Kingdom: Orca Book Publishers. Western Fisheries Research Centre. “Questions and Answers About Salmon.” USGS: Science for a changing world. Accessed 16 Sep 2024. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/western-fisheries-research-center/question…. Sutterby, Rod., Greenhalgh, Malcolm. 2005. “Atlantic salmon : an illustrated natural history." United States: Stackpole Books.

39: Sutterby, Rod., Greenhalgh, Malcolm. 2005. “Atlantic salmon : an illustrated natural history." United States: Stackpole Books.

40: Hall, Danielle. “The Complicated Tale of Salmon and Trout.” Smithsonian: National Museum of Natural History. Accessed 16 Sep 2024. https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/fish/complicated-tale-salmon-and-trout

41: Coates, Peter. 2006. “Salmon.” United Kingdom: Reaktion Books.

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